Conspiracy theories: why people believe in them despite the lack of evidence

“Freemasons control the government,” “Official science falsifies history,” “Psychotherapy is a plot by pharmaceutical companies,” “5G towers spread the coronavirus” and other similar headlines surround us every day. Social networks are flooded with videos about conspiracy theories, and they get thousands, sometimes even millions, of views. Often the claims in such articles and videos are simply absurd, but that doesn’t stop them from becoming popular. Some people laugh at them, but many take them seriously.

In this article we will discuss the most popular conspiracy theories, examine which features of thinking make us believe them, and also find out whether the number of conspiracy believers is really growing every day.

A conspiracy theory, or conspiracism, is the belief that certain significant events are the result of malicious actions by some group of people — or even by non-human intelligent beings. Proponents of conspiracy theories think that official explanations lie: in reality things are different, but for various reasons this is being hidden from ordinary people.

For example, more than a third of Americans believe that global warming is a myth. Governments and environmental corporations are alleged to have conspired to deceive people so they would supposedly fight warming while in reality money was just being siphoned off.

But is that really true? Let’s look at the stumbling blocks where conspiracy theories most often fall apart on closer inspection:

• It is difficult for a large group of people to keep everything secret. For example, a conspiracy of governments would involve at least hundreds of people with access to such a secret. Such information would sooner or later come out, but we don’t observe that.
• An alternative explanation is often less logical and less likely. Often it directly contradicts objective reality: for example, 5G towers simply cannot cause COVID-19 (that is caused by a coronavirus),and US presidents are far more likely to be humans than aliens.
• The official version usually has many pieces of evidence whose reliability is easy to verify. The evidence for conspiratorial versions most often does not withstand criticism.

Overall, there is nothing wrong with questioning interpretations of events — that is how critical thinking is formed. It is the ability to consciously analyze information and draw your own conclusions. But blind faith in conspiracy theories is different from reasonable skepticism about official interpretations of particular events.

There are three main reasons why it is easy to believe in conspiracy theories. They are features of the human brain, education, and individual personality.

Psychology and cognitive biases

The human brain is optimized for quick decisions and energy conservation. It tends to avoid complex routes, seek familiar patterns and causal connections. When information becomes excessive, the part the brain deems insignificant is simply filtered out. The brain predicts what a scene means in order to react as quickly as possible. That is why we like simple answers to complex questions.

Humans evolved in a world where uncertainty meant danger. The brain strives to find a simple explanation for surrounding phenomena. That is how legends and myths were born. A lightning strike that for unknown reasons kills a person is terrifying and inexplicable. The anger of a thunder god is less frightening. Such a simple explanation immediately reduces anxiety.

The purpose of such stories is not to explain the phenomenon in detail. They help calm the brain and help a person survive. It is precisely this feature that makes us vulnerable to conspiracy theories.

Moreover, conspiracy theories are more attractive when social circumstances push in that direction. A study by Whitson and Galinsky confirmed this experimentally in 2008. Social tension makes people see patterns in what is happening and look for a catch in official statements. The same is caused by explanations that are too trivial and prosaic for large-scale events. For example, the COVID-19 pandemic, which claimed so many lives, seems so vast and monstrous that many people cannot accept its explanation as the effect of a virus.

Sometimes conspiracism performs a very important function. Everyone needs their worldview to be stable and consistent. Some choose to believe in conspiracy theories for epistemic reasons — to form a coherent view of the world. This helps to understand and navigate reality and, consequently, increases the overall sense of security. Conspiracy theories are a way to calm the brain and reduce background stress. People who trust conspiracism feel safer, as Tetlock found in 2002. Thus, belief in conspiracy theories is largely explained by the psyche’s defensive mechanisms.

Education and critical thinking

Education level affects belief in conspiracy theories. When people better understand how things work, they are less likely to trust implausible explanations. Quality education does not just provide knowledge — it teaches you how to think, compare facts, and form your own opinion. A group of researchers in 2014 demonstrated that people with analytical skills are much less likely to believe in conspiracism.

The human brain tends to simplify reality and look for easy, clear explanations, but it can be made to work at full capacity. If you critically analyze any conspiracy theory, its untenability becomes obvious. Accordingly, it is difficult to believe something that contradicts objective reality.

The higher the overall level of critical thinking, the lower the tendency toward conspiracism. Education also helps develop critical thinking. If it is high-quality and widely accessible, belief in conspiracy theories weakens.

On our site you can take a free critical thinking test.

Individual differences

Personal traits can also make some people more vulnerable to conspiracy theories. In 2013 a group of scientists showed that if a person is inclined to believe in paranormal phenomena, they are more likely to believe in conspiracies. People convinced that paranormal phenomena exist often adhere to at least one conspiracy theory.

In 2023 an interesting meta-analysis was published explaining how individual differences affect susceptibility to conspiracism. To summarize its results, the propensity to believe in conspiracy theories is increased by:

• Psychological disorders. Paranoia, schizotypal disorder and similar conditions make people more vulnerable.



On our site you can take a free test for psychological disorders.

• Irrational or intuitive thinking. This feature of the mind leads people to rely more on guessing or intuition about events than on facts.
• Low levels of reflection. If the habit of thinking things through is absent, people are more likely to trust conspiracism.
• A preference for concreteness. Conspiracy explanations are usually simpler and clearer than scientists’ statements. They seem more concrete and therefore more convincing.
• Negative thinking. Conspiracy theories assume the world is dangerous and unstable, with much being the result of malicious actions. Pessimists are more likely to believe this, because such an explanation fits their worldview better.
• Religiosity. Religious people are used to seeing events in their lives as manifestations of a higher will. They are easier to persuade that certain things are not accidental or have an unnatural origin.

Belonging to certain social groups can also increase vulnerability. If a person is convinced their group is superior to others, this has a negative effect. Such a group may form around nationality, language, race, faith, etc. Xenophobia forces viewing everyone outside one’s group as enemies. It becomes easier to decide they have sinister plans threatening the stability of your community.

Older generations are more likely to trust conspiracy theories. It even matters where a person gets their information. If the main source of information is television, the likelihood of believing a conspiracy theory is higher.

Conspiracism has always existed. People simply called it by other names. One of the main conspiracy ideas of the past was the belief that certain people had magical abilities. They supposedly could see the future, change the weather, transform into various animals, etc. Diseases and decline were explained by witchcraft, curses, the evil eye. In the Middle Ages this led to witch hunts. People believed that certain women were making their lives worse and punished them. In reality, the causes of decline were different: poor sanitation and bad economic conditions.

With the spread of Christianity, illnesses began to be explained by demonic influence. In the pre-Christian era most demons were considered neutral toward humans; some could harm, others could help. Christianity distorted this image: demons were one of the important symbols of Roman culture, which the new religion opposed. Over time a habit developed in popular consciousness to explain any negative event by demonic influence. The nature of illnesses, sudden fits of aggression, and states of affect became simple and understandable.

One conspiracy theory destroyed the Knights Templar: King Philip IV of France believed that members of the order were plotting against his power. Another theory arose after the Templars were destroyed: allegedly the last Grand Master Jacques de Molay cursed those responsible for his death — the Pope and France itself. The Pope who disbanded the Templars soon died. The King of France also died shortly afterward, as did his three sons. None of them left male heirs. Thus the Capetian dynasty that destroyed the Templars ended within just a couple of decades. Papal influence and authority were greatly weakened. These are unrelated events, but many still believe in the power of the Templars’ curse.

Conspiracy theories also shroud the secret society of the Freemasons. Originally it was an association of stonemasons — a kind of guild of builders. Conspiracism begins even at this stage, because some assert that the Freemasons descend from Templars who survived the persecutions. Masonic lodges spread relatively quickly across Europe. It was a peaceful club of shared interests — a community of people interested in esotericism and charity — but many still believe Freemasons secretly run governments of various countries. The explanation is simple: the society included many influential and wealthy people. That situation persists now. Other people often fear that Freemasons hide behind good intentions and in fact use their power for harm.

Sometimes conspiracy theories surround not individual people or even communities, but cities and countries. In the past people believed in certain blessed lands full of fabulous riches. Hyperborea, Atlantis, El Dorado, Shambhala — merely myths, yet people believed in their existence for centuries.

Modern conspiracy theories are diverse. Many of them concern vaccinations:

• 1. Vaccination causes autism. The myth spread after the publication of one study that claimed to prove it. Later it was established that the author lied and falsified facts to sell products for the company that hired him. A retraction was published, but many people did not believe it.
• 2. Vaccines kill. Instead of medicine, doctors supposedly inject poison or an amplified disease and thus perform a kind of natural selection. They kill those inconvenient to the government, a secret society, or even representatives of extraterrestrial civilizations. Vaccines do indeed contain substances that are dangerous in large doses. Their concentrations are chosen so that there is no harmful effect. They help the body, not kill it.
• 3. Vaccines do not harm the vaccinated person, but their children will be born with various pathologies. Immunity is developed individually by each person and is not inherited. Yes, a mother’s body helps the child form resistance to pathogens, but only up to certain limits. If a woman had chickenpox in childhood, her daughter will not inherit immunity to it. Information about past illnesses and vaccinations is not transmitted genetically.
• 4. Vaccination causes COVID-19. This myth spread after the coronavirus pandemic. In reality, the vaccine helps the body develop immunity to the disease.
• 5. Vaccination is simply pointless; everyone gets sick the same. Statistics say otherwise. A variant of this conspiracy claims that vaccinated people receive incomplete immunity and that it is better to get sick naturally. In reality this does not work — immunity develops with an equally strong response.
• 6. People from risk groups should not be vaccinated against coronavirus; it will kill them. In fact, the exact opposite is true. The vaccine helps to build immunity gently, whereas the disease often leads to fatal outcomes.

Another group of theories is connected with the appearance of microchips. Some people believe such a device can be implanted unnoticed. Then it will influence the person, implant certain directives and even control their actions. In reality, technology capable of subjugating human consciousness does not exist.

Supporters of this theory believe that chipping occurs during vaccinations. 5G towers are also claimed to be dangerous. They either program people themselves or activate pre-implanted microchips. There is also a theory that 5G causes coronavirus.

Conspiracism often turns to the idea of a secret power ruling the world. Governments of different countries are alleged to:

• be, in reality, controlled by the Freemasons.
• not exist at all. All wars are the result of secret actions by a group that long ago took control of the planet.
• have been seized by representatives of extraterrestrial civilizations. Or by an alternative intelligent species — evolved reptiles.
• be subservient to the heads of powerful corporations. Presidents, ministers, deputies are merely puppets.
• be closed groups into which entry is impossible. Elections are an illusion; one can become part of the leadership only through family ties. Regarding some countries this is not a conspiracy theory but reality. A cult of personality is characteristic, for example, of the DPRK and China, and almost always coexists with cronyism. In such countries a person can reach power only if they have relatives in government. Such states are called autocratic — and almost no modern countries belong to them.

Many conspiracy theories are connected with the assassination of John Kennedy, one of the US presidents. According to the official version, the killer was Lee Harvey Oswald, acting alone. More than half of Americans do not believe this. According to conspiratorial theories, Kennedy was killed on the orders of American or Soviet intelligence services, US Vice President Lyndon Johnson, the Cuban government, or organized crime groups.

The death of Princess Diana, the wife of Charles, Prince of Wales (since his coronation in 2022 known as Charles III),also seems strange to many. She died in a car crash. According to a popular conspiracy theory, her death was organized by members of the royal family. The reason — an alleged desire to rid themselves of a woman who was supposedly portraying the ruling dynasty in an unfavorable light. The marriage was unhappy, and this allegedly harmed the royal family’s reputation.

Conspiracism forms not only around diseases, new technologies and rulers. Any event with large public resonance spawns conspiracy theories. A striking example is the series of terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, when hijacked airplanes crashed into skyscrapers in central New York. Two other planes were directed at the Pentagon and, allegedly, the Capitol. Usama bin Laden was suspected immediately. It turned out that Al-Qaeda indeed was behind the attacks, but many believe that the real reason for the skyscrapers’ destruction was different. For example, there were no planes — the buildings were destroyed by explosives or missiles.

Another theme for conspiratorial theories is contact with representatives of extraterrestrial civilizations. The idea that humans are not alone in the Universe is very popular. It has scientific grounds, but so far there is no evidence of extraterrestrial life. At the same time, there are many people who claim to have encountered aliens. They report seeing unidentified flying objects (interpreting aircraft or atmospheric phenomena as such),and say they have communicated with aliens. Some are allegedly abducted by other civilizations for study and then returned to Earth.

Supporters of extraterrestrial theories believe that alien craft periodically crash. Governments of different countries study the remains but hide this from people. A vivid example of this belief is the conviction that Area 51 in the Nevada desert was created to study dead aliens. More likely, this military facility is a secret testing range. Area 51 almost certainly develops and tests aircraft.

Many people believe that extraterrestrial civilizations do not exist. This conviction goes so far that new conspiracy theories appear. For example, there was no moon landing because it is allegedly impossible to reach the Moon. Historical footage is just photomontage and lunar soil samples are forged.

Why can’t we leave Earth? Conspiracy theorists can explain this too. They claim our planet is not a sphere. This, they say, is another deception by scientists. In reality the Earth is flat — exactly as depicted on ancient maps. Many people who adhere to this theory are orthodox Christians, but there are also many atheists among flat-earthers.

These are only the most common conspiracy theories. There are so many conspiracisms that literally anything can be explained by them.

Conspiracy theories exist for biological, social and individual reasons. It is a widespread phenomenon, from which education and critical thinking help protect.

If a person believes in one conspiracy theory, it is much easier to convince them of another. Belief in conspiratorial theories affects worldview and all spheres of life. It prevents seeing reality objectively and forming a secure attachment style in relationships with others. It is difficult to communicate with someone who imposes their opinion and demonstrates a lack of critical thinking. Consequently, the social life quality of a person who is into conspiracism declines.

Many researchers and journalists believe that belief in conspiracy theories is steadily increasing. Fortunately, a recent study refutes this. Over time belief in many conspiracy theories remains at the same level, and for some theories it even decreases.

Conspiracy theories are traps our brain falls into. They can be avoided. Think carefully about the causes behind significant events. Trust facts, not words — even if those words come from a source you consider authoritative. Rely on the scientific understanding of the world, not on mysticism, esotericism or religion.